Corporate Social Responsibility of Oil and Gas industry in Nigeria

Corporate Social Responsibility of Oil and Gas industry in Nigeria The main objective of this literature review is to attempt answering the research questions posed in our proposal because it is the focus of this research. In doing that, we shall review definitions, recapitulate and employs insights to the studies of previous prominent researchers on the topic particularly as it concerns MNOC in Nigeria. The work shall mainly consult books, journals and articles amongst others. With the general growth of CSR in many multinational companies, it is hardly surprising that CSR attracted considerable attention in recent years. In an attempt to digest CSR, studies have focused on the meaning, drivers and scope of CSR. While some researchers say it should not exist, others said it should be philanthropic, some said it is to enhance business, and others even think it regulatory compliance. Much of the earlier work emphasized two prominent definitions: philanthropy or business enhancement. Ojala (1994) said it has three major facets: complying with the law; setting and abiding by moral and ethical standards; and philanthropic giving. The first popular/acceptable definition of CSR is by Bowen (1953, p.6) He defined CSR as the obligations of businessmen to pursue those policies, to make those decisions, or to follow those lines of action which are desirable in terms of the objectives and values of our society. Since then, many definitions followed ranging from Carroll (1979), McWilliams and Siegel (2001), Whetten et al (2002), Maignan and Ferrell (2004) and Sriramesh et al. (2009) EUs Green paper on CSR defined it as a concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and in their interaction with their stakeholders on a voluntary basis. The World Business Council for Sustainable Development defines CSR as the continuing commitment by business to behave ethically and contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of its workers. . .as well as the local community and society at large. These definitions are important to this work as they see CSR as voluntary. To CSR advocates it is giving back to the land/people from whom it has taken so much, else poverty, unemployment, lop-sided development would continue to haunt Companies. Shankar Venkateswaran (2000) said that Islands of prosperity cannot survive in a sea of poverty the sea will ultimately engulf the islands. On the contrary, critics believe that CSR are used to distract public from asking questions posed by MNC operations. To them, CSR is not committed to sustainable development as claimed because activities of MNCs are contrary CSR. Example is Shells CSR led to pioneering in triple bottom line reporting, still there was a scandal of its misreporting of oil reserves in 2004. REVIEW OF THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS People view CSR differently, some advocate while others criticize. Peter Drucker (2004) is of the view that CSR should not exist at all. He said corporate social responsibility is a dangerous distortion from business principles. If you find an executive who wants to take on social responsibility, fire him. Fast. Others said that the organizations pay taxes to ensure that society and the environment are not adversely affected by business activities. This leads us to the first research question. What could be the main drivers of Corporate Social Responsibility by multinational companies? Is it to promote corporate image and benefit business or do they have positive responsibilities that add value to the communities they do business in? Motivations to engage in CSR are varies. Some are response to market forces, globalization, consumer and civil society pressures, etc. Some see it as a higher incentive to protect brands and investments (NEEDS). CSR drivers will be reviewed in three categories: economic, institutional and social drivers Economic Drivers There has been a lot of literature supporting that CSR is to enhance business. This proposition was clearly supported by Milton Friedman (1970). To him, a corporations purpose is to maximize returns to its shareholders and not to society as a whole. He said When I hear businessmen speak eloquently about the social responsibilities of business in a free-enterprise system, I am reminded of the wonderful line about the Frenchman who discovered at the age of 70 that he had been speaking prose all his life. The businessmen believe that they are defending free enterprise when they declaim that business is not concerned merely with profit but also with promoting desirable social ends; that business has a social conscience and takes seriously its responsibilities for providing employment, eliminating discrimination, avoiding pollution and whatever else may be the catchwords of the contemporary crop of reformers. In the same vein, McKibben Bill (2006) suggests that corporations which exist solely to maximize profits are unable to advance the interests of society as a whole. Also, Lord Justices Pill, May and Keane (1997) in proving that McDonalds business contradicts its social responsibility principles ruled that eating enough McDonalds food may make ones diet high in fat therefore increase the risk heart disease in McDonaldHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonalds_Restaurants_v_Morris__SteelHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonalds_Restaurants_v_Morris__Steels Restaurants v Steel HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonalds_Restaurants_v_Morris__SteelHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonalds_Restaurants_v_Morris__Steel Morris. For Johnson (1971p.54 cited in Vrabic, 2010) Social responsibility states that business carry out social programs to add profits to their organizations. He perceives CSR as long-run profit maximization not just activity to demonstrate ethical s tandards. Orlitzky, Schmidt, and Rynes (2004) in their study found a correlation between social/environmental performance and financial performance. Kurucz (2008, p.86), in his study identified four general types of business cases to support that CSR enhances business: cost and risk reduction, profit maximization and competitive advantage, reputation and legitimacy, and synergistic value creation. Cost and risk Reduction: Firm engage in CSR to reduce costs and risks to the firm, since stakeholders demands can present a potential threat to corporate financial goals (Kurucz, 2008, p. 88). Competitive Advantage: CSR can be used to gain competitive advantage over industry rivals (Kurucz, 2008, p. 89). It is also used as a lobbying strategy for tighter regulations that leads to higher market values especially in oil companies with heavy polluting activities. (Porter 1991, cited in Vrabic, 2010) Reputation and Legitimacy: CSR is made for strategic reasons and are designed to extend legitimacy and enhance corporate reputation, to maintain its legitimacy, repair or defend its lost or threatened legitimacy (Kurucz, 2008, p. 91). Miles and Covin (2000 cited in Vrabic, 2010) opined that environmental stewardship creates reputational advantage that enhances marketing and financial performance. To Brown and Dacin (1997), negative social reputation can have detrimental effect on product evaluations and positive social reputation can enhance product evaluations. This could be seen from the boycott of Shell gas station by European consumers due to Shells attempt to dispose Brent Spar oil platform in the Atlantic Ocean and the consequent 50% decline sales (Neuger, 1995 cited in Vrabic, 2010). Synergistic Value Creation Approaches advocating synergistic value creation are focused seeking opportunities to reveal, relate, and synthesize the interests of diverse set of stakeholders. Some studies, however, have taken a different approach. Lerner and Fryxell, (1988 cited in Vrabic, 2010)) argue that firms incur unnecessary costs that does not add value and reduce profitability by increasing social performance. Institutional Much as there may be economic drivers of CSR, to serve long term national interests, Governments have a strong interest in promoting CSR initiatives mostly through regulation to complement their environmental and social programs (Mazurkiewicz, 2004a). Prominent CSR researchers consider regulation as a natural adjunct to improving the social performance of business, contingent only on the correct design of market incentives (Porter and van der Linde 2000, p. 156, cited in Vrabic, 2010). In Europe, many countries have introduced legislation to mandate environmental reporting for corporations (Haigh and Jones, 2006). Also, Inter-governmental organizations like EU, UN and OECD promote CSR through various policies that encourage companies to voluntarily engage in more sustainable and socially responsible conduct of business. In the oil sector, (Frynas, 2009, p.50 52) argue that decisions are becoming politicized especially with joint venture agreements. With joint venture, Government owns shares, oil, grants licenses, provides regulatory framework, and defines respective rights and responsibilities of investors. Social Factors Moon and Vogel, (2008, cited in Vrabic, 2010) argue that in the global market, MNCs often appeared to be as powerful as states, yet unaccountable as Governments and international institutions most times create regulatory vacuum to control their actions. This vacuum the NGOs normally fill by questioning MNCs actions (Held and McGrew, 2002, cited in Vrabic, 2010). NGOs demand that companies follow the conventions and agreements signed within UN, respect basic environmental regulations adopted by western governments or regional organizations (Bandell, 2004). The second question is Why are there proliferations of youth militancy and movement, protests, invasion of oil facilities and abduction of oil workers, intense dispute and conflicts against the MNOCs in the Niger Delta despite the CSR? The problems between the oil companies and host communities are best described by Watts, (2004:198) as the story of development and counter development working with and against one another in complex and contradictory ways. The crises and hostility according to Eweje (2007) arise sometimes because indigenes feel they dont get enough social and economic infrastructures/assistance from the MNOCs. The CSR seem to escalate the crisis. This is because either by omission or commission, CSR activities and processes impact negatively on local communities, often outweighing the positive benefits CSR brings (Watts, 2004). Christian Aid (2004) says that despite Shells claims about honesty, integrity and respect for people, the oil company has failed to bring about change in the delta. It also confirmed that some of the acclaimed schools, hospitals and other social amenities have been abandoned or did not meet the needs of the communities they were meant to support. It found evidence that Shells clean-up of oil spills and repair of pipelines in Nigeria is scandalously inadequate and would never be tolerated in Europe and North America. This failure of CSR added to the bad feeling between the local community and Shell (Andrew Pendleton Christian aid report). Sometimes oil companies carry propaganda by way of CSR. Example is the CSR that followed Ogoni crisis to redeem Shells image especially with several publications and propogandas.58 Oil companies sometimes connive with the state to be violent, using private security and state agents who are often overactive in their tasks of protecting oil installations and workers. This leads to harassment, intimidation and suppression of environmental development and rights activities. Sometimes crises arise because of oil spills. Nembe indigene 3 (cited in Tuodolo 2007) said Oil activities cause serious environmental problem. Oil spills; discharge of drilling and production waste; and gas flaringà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. The negative impact of these on the peoples health and livelihood is enormous: All of us in this community are fishermen à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ there is always spillage à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ have destroyed our marine life and our occupationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. To show Shells negligence and non-sustainability, it spilled 14,000 tons of oil into the Niger Delta in 2009 while that of 2008 is between 2,200-8,000 and a daily flaring of about 604 million per day (SPDC, 2009). On their part, Shell CEO Peter Voser(2010, reported in Guardian newspapers) said that Nigeria, especially the Niger Delta, remains a very challenging place in which to operate. Security issues and sabotage are constant threats to our people, assets and the environment. Even when the crises arise, oil companies respond when and how they like. They sometimes pay compensation and initiate community projects, but do not enhance their social responsibility credentials (Omotala 2010). He said One, the oil companies à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ are known for paying compensations that are far lower than international minimum standards. They are also reputed for the avoidance of payments of compensation on frivolous grounds such as attributing oil spills to sabotage for which they may not be culpable. In some instances, they only pay compensation after protracted court cases that are usually very costly to the host community. Sometimes the development does not worth it even when they are implemented. Idemudia (2009) said CSR developments must protect, preserve and conserve the environments upon which the livelihood of rural inhabitants depends to be meaningful and sustainable. MNOCs are being accused of living by their words. Example, a community leader asserts that most of these developments are only reflected on their books, not on the ground and even then it is not based on the priorities set by the communities but what suits their public relation image of the company ( Eweje, 2007). All this culminated together causes the rising violence, militancy, protests, invasion of oil facilities, pipeline vandalization and abduction of oil workers in the region which sometimes swings both the oil companies and Government to actions. Eweje (2007) concludes that no matter how laudable the CSR initiatives are if the host communities do not feel that the projects will create a sustainable economic, social and environmental development the conflict and unrest in the Niger Delta will continue. There have been questions of whether CSR differ in developing and developed countries. Amaeshi et al. (2006) in their work asked if there is a Nigerian brand of CSR or is it an imitation of western CSR practices. NEEDS XV argue that socio-culturally framed and that the socio-cultural characteristics of Nigeria are unique and as such, the practice of CSR would mainly be shaped by the socio-economic conditions in which these firms operate. To NEEDS, CSR in Nigeria would be aimed towards poverty alleviation, health care provision, infrastructure development, education, etc, not necessarily reflection of popular western standard like consumer protection, fair trade, green marketing, climate change, social responsible investments, etc. Oil spills are more in Nigeria and even where there is, prompt actions are not taken (Christian Aid 2004). Considering this point, Frynas, (2005) said that where government fails to effectively make and enforce environmental regulation, MNOC only voluntarily care to avoid oil spills and may be label it CSR. CSR today looks more of regulatory compliance in developed countries with more effective government. In Nigeria, Shell admitted that its approach to CSR causes community disorder (SPDC, 2005:28), yet Shell has not changed the practices despites its claims to CSR. While the more popular opinion like (Frynas, Christian Aid) is that there is double standard, sometimes MNOCs act the same way in both developing and developed countries. This can be justified by signing of collaborative agreements with Colombian with the Colombian Defence Ministry to provide $2.2 million on top of the mandatory war tax in 1995 by BP (Muttitt and Marriott, 2002). BP was accused of forming its own army and hiring security people with histories of human rights abuses and even murder (Beder, 2002, cited in Vrabic, 2010). Investigations revealed that BPs security firm, trained the Colombian police in counterinsurgency and intelligence techniques used against local communities, and also provided weapons to the 16th Battalion of the Colombian army, which then conducted a massacre (Gillard, 1999 cited in Vrabic, 2010). There was fierce stakeholder pressure on BP and BP evaluated its social and environmental strategies (Frynas, 2009, p. 22-23). Some years after, a senior BP manager admitted: Weve learned from our mistakesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. In Colombia we were accused of getting too close to the army and police in order to protect our operations. We listened, approached the Human Rights Watch for advice, and then organized new security arrangements (Rice, 2002, p. 135). Could it be safe to say CSR in developing countries are not at its best and if so is overlap, ineffective coordination and communication, absence of regulatory framework, partnership with Government/local communities major problems hindering the effective implementation of CSR projects? In Nigeria, Rauscher (1992, cited in Frynas 1998) says that Governments sought to attract foreign investors by permitting ecological dumping, for the sake of economic development. Ite (2004) also argued that the government has continued to renegade on its commitment that it becomes almost impossible for the CSR investments by the oil firms to contribute positively to their host communities. Oil companies blame oil pollution on political instability like sabotage because there is no comprehensive legislation on compensation payments to communities in Nigeria (Frynas 1998). But Walter and Ugelow (1979) in their work said that Nigerias environmental policy is been tolerant to corporate polluters for a long time compare to international standard. Frynas argues that there is a direct relationship between state welfare provision and the need for CSR initiatives. To him, greater social and environmental responsibilities should be taken in countries where the government does not have effective mechanisms of regulation and provision of public goods. He cited Nigeria as his example. Patricia Werhane (2007) on her own part cited corruption as a serious problem hindering CSR implementation in developing countries. She said A big challenge facing multinational corporations is how they should respond to local corruption. Both Shell Oil and Exxon/Mobile sought to carry out drilling operations at sites plagued by corrupt local and national governmentsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. (Patricia Werhane 2007) This is also Watts view when he said What passes as development is usually contracts and bribes-so-called cash payments-with influential traditional elites, orchestrated through ineffective or corrupt community liason officers (Watts, 2004). CSR ineffective coordination manifests in commercialized conflicts between individuals and groups who always fight over the benefits; community funds for development are mismanaged, misappropriated, and embezzled or shared by community leaders or clique (Watts, 2004). Social disorders like arms possession, increasing illiteracy, criminality, lawlessness and the disintegration of tradition and culture now became order of the day. CSR should be considered more as a corporate moral responsibility, and limit the reach of CSR by focusing more on direct impacts of the organization (Patricia Werhane 2007). It is suggested that for CSR to worth its onion, there should be better governmental and international regulation and enforcement, rather than voluntary measures. This is EU approach. For example, Denmark on 16 December 2008, adopted a bill making it mandatory for the 1100 largest Danish companies, investors and state-owned companies to include information on CSR in their annual financial reports. In Nigeria, FEC approved CSR policy on 21st May 2008. Also, Akwa Ibom state enacted oil and gas law stipulating social responsibility of oil companies. To Christian Aid (2004:2) the only way to instill honesty and integrity into business practice is to strip CSR of its voluntarism and enact laws that spell out minimum social and environmental standards that companies must meet. Jettison corporate social responsibility: make it corporate social accountability, because for too long CSR has served as merely a branch of PR and in some cases as the only spurts of development activity by large companies. CONCLUSION This work had defined CSR and explored the fundamental drivers of CSR. The observation is that today CSR is a consequence of various factors together interactions of various social groups and NGOs, state institutions and self promoting economic motives. Three main drivers were seen as the main promoters of CSR, and one could conclude that CSR is more of business strategy than social. In the Niger Delta the continued crises could be attributed to the fact that MNOSs do their things in their own way without actually touching indigenes lives. They employ any means to protect their business interest As regards the standard, MNOC adopt different standard for different stroke that is why this work is of the view that there should be laws guiding CSR not just MNOCs doing what they think is suitable to them. This work also found out that there are structural factors, systemic failures, absence of enabling environment hinder positive impact of CSR. Although the popular view from this review is that MNOCs engage in CSR to enhance business therefore there should be CSR regulations, it cannot be ruled out that regulations especially stringent ones and host communities problems will discourage the MNOC who may decide to move their investment to a more friendly business environment. This clearly gives room for more research.

A paper about Apollo 13 Essay

On April 11, 1970, three men were scheduled to fly to and land on the moon. The mission labeled Apollo 13. Alan Shepard, Stuart Roosa, and Edgar Mitchell made-up the original crew members of Apollo 13, but because of an inner-ear surgery, Alan Shepard felt unprepared to fly Apollo13. Jim Lovell, the commander of Apollo 14, was then approached and asked if he would mind switching flights with Shepard. Jim did not think there would be a great difference between the two flights and wanted to get back to the moon. He agreed and his crew began training. (Lovell and Kluger, 60-61) Jim’s crew included Fred Haise, Ken Mattingly, and himself. They gladly accepted their mission. Little did these men know, however, their flight was going to be riddled with problems and be forever remembered for them. The three men should have known that their mission was fated for mishaps when at the last minute Ken Mattingly was removed from the crew because of an accidental exposure to German measles. He was replaced by the â€Å"playboy† Jack Swigert. Jack, who was not taken very seriously by the public, became a huge asset to the crew of Apollo 13. The chosen men of Apollo 13 were to become the second group of men launched towards the moon. Their mission was clear: Get to the moon. Apollo 13 planned to land in the Fra Mauro Formation, an extensive geologic unit covering large portions of the moon. The men were to exit the spacecraft and perform numerous experiments for NASA. These experiments would give information on the composition of the moon’s surface and its formation. Age dating would have been done when the samples returned to earth. This shows the age of the formations and provides an idea of where the moon falls on the geologic time scale. (Godwin, 63) Ken Mattingly, Jim Lovell, and Fred Haise were ready for their mission. This is what they had trained their whole lives for. Devastatingly, Ken Mattingly was not allowed to fly with the crew of Apollo 13 to the moon. Seventy-two hours before the flight launched into space, NASA informed Ken that he had been exposed to the German measles and would not be able to continue with the mission. (JSC) The entire crew including the back-up crew was exposed to the disease. Back-up LEM pilot, Charlie Duke, became sick after being exposed to the disease because of his son.  Even though the entire crew, including the back-up crew had been exposed, Ken Mattingly had not been immunized and would endanger the flight if he were to become sick while in space. (Lovell and Kluger, 88) NASA has strict rules about such things and knew that a sick crew member could not be trusted completely as an operator of a spacecraft. Ken’s crew rallied behind him and fought NASA so that Ken could join them on this mission. Unfortunately, NASA disregarded the crew’s arguments. Jim Lovell became Mattingly’s number one supporter, however. He wanted his friend with him and did not understand why Ken could not go into space. He asked the flight surgeon, â€Å"How long is the incubation period for this thing?† The surgeon replied, â€Å"About ten days to two weeks?† After more discussion about the fact that during lift-off Ken would be fine and when they reached the moon Ken would be healthy, Lovell asked, â€Å"Then what’s the problem? If he starts running a fever when Fred and I are down on the surface (of the moon), he can have that whole time to get over it. If he’s not better by then, he can just sweat if out on the flight home. I can’t think of a better place to have the measles than in a nice cozy spaceship.† (Lovell and Kluger, 89) When Lovell finished ranting, the surgeon still bumped Mattingly from the flight. Jack Swigert replaced Ken for the April 11th launch. Jack Swigert took the place of Ken Mattingly as Command Module pilot. Jack had a reputation as a rambunctious bachelor and had an energetic social life. The public knew of his behavior and during the flight, instead of watching late-breaking news, they watched talk shows that belittled him for such behavior. On April 13th, two days after the launch, ABC was showing The Dick Cavett Show. Dick had one comment about the space flight. He said, â€Å"And speaking of girl watching, did you know our first bachelor astronaut is on his way to the moon? It’s Swigert, right? He’s the kind of guy who they say has a girl in every port. Well, that may be, but I think he’s kinda foolishly optimistic taking nylons and Hershey bars to the moon† (Lovell and Kluger, 4). America knew him as â€Å"the bachelor.† Swigert, however, was quiet, unassuming, and hard-working. The only astronaut unmarried in NASA’s history, Swigert knew this was bad for his image in the 1960’s, but NASA kept him on because he was such a good pilot. Swigert and NASA knew that he was a good pilot, but his lifestyle not his qualifications had been publicized for the public to judge him by. Swigert served in the Air Force after graduating from the University of Colorado. During this time he was a fighter pilot in both Japan and Korea. After earning a Masters of Science from the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1965, Swigert was selected by NASA in 1966 along with Ken Mattingly, Fred Haise, and nineteen other astronauts. (Godwin) The crew had trained for a good year before the flight was to be launched. During this year, the crew became so close that Lovell and Haise could interpret the nuances and inflections in Mattingly’s voice. This would become valuable when Mattingly would only be shouting commands at the two men while they tried to steer their lander. (Lovell and Kluger, 89-90) So it wasn’t that the crew of Apollo 13 did not believe in Swigert’s abilities, but they had trained with Ken Mattingly for so many months that they were afraid they would not be as successful. To their surprise, Swigert fit into the crew nicely. Forty-eight hours before they were to launch, NASA certified Jack to fly. (Lovell and Kluger, 89-90) With Mattingly left behind in Mission Control, Apollo 13 launched on April 11, 1970 with full faith it would make it to the moon. NASA launched Apollo 13 from Launch Complex 39A at Kennedy Space Center in Florida at 2:13 p.m. (Godwin, 81) The launch went well. The only problems the crew encountered were with fuel cells and the fact that Swigert had not filed his tax returns yet. The Capcom, Joe Kerwin, asked the guys if they had completed their income tax forms. Swigert replied, â€Å"How do I apply for an extension?† Joe laughed. â€Å"Joe, it ain’t too funny. Things happened kinda fast down there and I do need an extension. I may be spending time in another quarantine when we get back, besides the medical one they’re planning for us.† After cracking up the entire mission control, Joe came back on saying, â€Å"We’ll see what we can do, Jack† (Lovell and Kluger, 92). The crew continued with regular business. Little did they know they would be dealing with much bigger problems than Jack’s taxes, but they would also be glad that they had him along. â€Å"Houston, we have a problem† (History Channel). Most people know this saying  well. They’ve said it when things go wrong in their own lives, but for the three men of Apollo 13 and the world it was the scariest phrase they had ever uttered or heard. Quickly after the ship was launched, a NASA technician discovered higher pressure on a helium tank than there was supposed to be. Nothing was done. After liftoff, Apollo 13’s second engine cut off two minutes early. To make up for this, the astronauts â€Å"burned the other four engines an additional 34.† (Space Exploration History) This resulted in a 1.2 feet per second speed gain. On April 13, 1970 after a television broadcast, the men were sent this message from mission control, â€Å"We’d like you to err, stir up you cryo tanks. In addition err, have a shaft and trunnion, for a look at the comet Bennett if you need it.† Jack Swigert did as he was told. (Space Exploration History) This le d to his now infamous phrase, â€Å"Houston, we have a problem† (History Channel). Jim Lovell described the explosion like this, † Fred was still in the lunar module. Jack was back in the command module, in the left-hand seat, and I was half way in between, in the lower equipment bay, wrestling with TV wires and a camera, watching Fred come on down, when all three of us heard a rather large bang – just one bang.† (Compton) All the men thought that the explosion was a joke being played by Fred Haise, but they quickly realized something was seriously wrong. Jim continues to describe his feelings by saying, â€Å"I guess it’s the kind of interesting to know what the feelings of the crew are when something like this happens. When you first hear this explosion or bang†¦you don’t know what it is. We’ve heard similar sounds in the spacecraft before that were for nothing†¦my concern was increasing all the time. It went from â€Å"I wonder what this is going to do to the landing† to â€Å"I wonder if we can get back home.† (Compton) The â€Å"bang† came from oxygen tank #2. The tank supplied oxygen used in the fuel cells, the primary energy source for Apollo 13. The astronauts were eighty-seven hours from home with only ten hours of back-up battery power. The battery power had to be saved for reentry into earth’s atmosphere. (Compton) With the help of mission control on the ground, the crew of Apollo 13 devised a plan to get back to earth safely. In 1968, NASA commissioned twenty-one panels to research aspects of the  Apollo spacecrafts. One of these panels included Jim Lovell and Jack Swigert. Their particular panel was to investigate in-flight fire emergency procedures. (Lovell and Kluger, 31) Jack had even written the procedures for malfunctions in case of such for the Command Module. (CD-ROM) So he and Lovell knew somewhat they way to get them back home safely. They planned to use the Lunar Module to survive. The LM was designed to separate from the Command and Space Module, land two astronauts on the moon, sustain them while they were on the moon, and carry them back to the ship in orbit. (Compton) The Command Module had to be shut down to save the batteries for reentry. Aquarius, the Lunar Module equipped for two men for two days now would have to contain three men for four days. Another problem that arose was the oxygen supply and the falling temperature. If the men continued to breathe normally, they would start breathing in their own carbon dioxide. This would kill them after a period of time. The men had to devise a plan to rid the ship of CO2. The next obstacle they had to tackle was the temperature. It ended up dropping to thirty-eight degrees in the Command Module. As all this was happening, the crew had to maneuver Apollo 13 around the moon, not to the moon, and towards earth. Once the crew was headed toward earth, the men in mission control were in complete control of the crew’s fate. Not only did NASA bring in the normal members of mission control to get the men back safely, but the Apollo 14 crew was there and so was Fred and Jim’s good pal Ken Mattingly. Together they all came up with a way to make an air filter that the crew could use to take away the carbon dioxide. While mission control and the others were hoping to get the men home, Marilyn Lovell and the other wives met at the Lovell home to pray for the crew. Even Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin watched coverage of the tragedy with Marilyn Lovell in her home. (Lovell and Kluger) All of the watchers on were glad when the men finally arrived home safely. The three men trapped in Apollo 13 were on their way home, but first they had to help Fred survive and say goodbye to a friend. Two days before the crew was to say goodbye to Aquarius and the service module, Fred Haise came down with a serious fever. His fever was due to a kidney infection he had  acquired from the lack of liquid intake the crew had been facing. During the time that Fred was battling his fever, the astronauts separated from the Service Module and the Lunar Module, powered up the Command Module, which they would use to return home, and Mission Control said its goodbyes with the famous quote, â€Å"Farewell, Aquarius, and we thank you.† Luckily, the power did return when the crew powered up the Command Module. (Space Exploration History) This had been a worry for the men and everyone at home. Two hours before splash down, Fred Haise reached a peak in his sickness. Jim glanced over at him and he had his eyes closed, hugging himself trying to stop from shivering. At this point Lovell wrapped Haise in a huge bear hug to warm him up. The shivering subsided and they all looked forward to the eighty degree weather in the South Pacific. (Lovell and Kluger) After being held captive in space for eighty-six hours and fifty-seven minutes with no idea if the would ever return home, the crew of Apollo 13 splashed down in the Pacific Ocean. They landed only three miles from the recovery ship, Iwo Jima. (Compton) The landing is the most accurate landing in the history of manned space flight. Apollo 13 wasn’t the last flight to the moon, there were four others, but none of the men who had flown with 13 ever went back into space. Ken Mattingly was the closest astronaut to Apollo 13 to ever fly. He was part of the Apollo 16 mission. The men of Apollo 13 all retired from NASA shortly after their fated mission. Jim left in 1973 and went on to work in telecommunications. Fred’s Apollo 19 mission was cancelled and he left the agency in the late 70’s. Jack, the surprise hero of the mission, left the agency immediately after splashdown. He returned to Colorado and entered politics. (Lovell and Kluger, 366-367) In November 1982, he was elected to the U.S House of Representatives. Unfortunately, Jack Swigert died of bone cancer days before he was to be sworn in. For three men who were not supposed to fly to the moon together, the crew of Apollo 13 became closer than any other flight crew before and showed a courage never shown by astronauts. They never copped o ut. When thoughts of â€Å"poison pills† and suicide starting entering their minds, they kept their efforts focused on getting the spacecraft back home. (Lovell and Kluger, 1) They had a pride to up hold. They had the pride of NASA and the United States. All of the men  had been soldiers. Jack Swigert fought in Japan. He knew what it was all about. The mission clearly was to get to the moon, but after the explosion of the oxygen tank the mission became life. It became teamwork. When Fred Haise became ill, the other two crew members made sure they took care of him and brought him home. (Lovell and Kluger) And in return he made sure he got them at the correct angle so that they would not catch on fire or bounce off the earth when reentering the atmosphere. Everyone pulled together in space and on the ground to get these heroes home. They came together like a family in a time of need. For this, they will always be remembered and looked at as heroes of the United States Space Program. For a mission that was forced to be labeled a failure, Apollo 13 was a great success for humanity and NASA.

Review These Study Questions for A Rose for Emily

A Rose for Emily is a favorite American short story by William Faulkner.   Summary The narrator of this story represents several generations of men and women from the town.  The story begins at the huge funeral for Miss Emily Grierson. Nobody has been to her house in 10 years, except for her servant. The town had a special relationship with Miss Emily ever since it decided to stop billing her for taxes in 1894. But, the newer generation wasnt happy with this arrangement, and so they paid a visit to Miss Emily and tried to get her to pay the debt. She refused to acknowledge that the old arrangement might not work anymore, and flatly refused to pay.Thirty years before, the tax collecting townspeople had a strange encounter with Miss Emily about a bad smell at her place. This was about two years after her father died, and a short time after her lover disappeared from her life. Anyhow, the stink got stronger and complaints were made, but the authorities didnt want to confront Emily about the problem. So, they sprinkled lime around the house and the smell was eventual ly gone.br/>Everybody felt sorry for Emily when her father died. He left her with the house, but no money. When he died, Emily refused to admit it for three whole days. The town didnt think she was crazy then, but assumed that she just didnt want to let go of her dad. Next, the story doubles back and tells us that not too long after her father died Emily begins dating Homer Barron, who is in town on a sidewalk-building project. The town heavily disapproves of the affair and brings Emilys cousins to town to stop the relationship. One day, Emily is seen buying arsenic at the drugstore, and the town thinks that Homer is giving her the shaft, and that she plans to kill herself.   When she buys a bunch of mens items, they think that she and Homer are going to get married. Homer leaves town, then the cousins leave town, and then Homer comes back. He is last seen entering Miss Emilys house. Emily herself rarely leaves the home after that, except for a period of half a dozen years when she gives painting lessons.  Her hair turns gray, she gains weight, and she eventually dies in a downstairs bedroom. The story cycles back to where it began, at her funeral. Tobe, miss Emilys servant, lets in the town women and then leaves by the backdoor forever. After the funeral, and after Emily is buried, the townspeople go upstairs to break into the room that they know has been closed for 40 years.Inside, they find the corpse of Homer Barron, rotting in the bed. On the dust of the pillow next to Homer they find an indentation of a head, and there, in the indentation, a long, gray hair. Study Guide Questions Here are a few questions for study and discussion. What is important about the title of the short story, A Rose for Emily? What are the multiple meanings for the rose?What are the conflicts in A Rose for Emily? What types of conflict (physical, moral, intellectual, or emotional) do you see in this story?How does William Faulkner reveal character in A Rose for Emily?What are some themes in the story? How do they relate to the plot and characters?What are some symbols in A Rose for Emily? How do they relate to the plot and characters?Do you find the characters likable? Would you want to meet the characters?What is significant about the gray hair at the end of the short story?What is the central/primary purpose of the story? Is the purpose important or meaningful?How essential is the setting to the story? Could the story have taken place anywhere else?What is the role of women in the text? What about single/independent women? What about the role of wife and mother?Would you recommend this story to a friend?

A P By John Updike - 2027 Words

John Hoyer Updike was born on March 18, 1932 in Reading, Pennsylvania. John spent his early years in a small town named Shillington where his father was currently a science teacher. He was an excellent student graduating with co-valedictorian and as president of his graduating class of High school. John attended Harvard University graduating with a major in English while writing for the Harvard lampoon humor magazine. In his arrival on the literary scenes in the late 1950’s, John amazed everyone by writing short stories, essays, and poetry. The author John Updike utilizes such amazing imagery, setting, point of view, and symbolism to convey the message of choices and consequences of his characters. After reading the short story â€Å"AP† by John Updike I came to realize the strong message behind the narrative. The story focuses on articulating a teen-aged boy who becomes aware of his true inner feelings and the value in society. A boy named Sammy, who happens to be wor king in a grocery store as a cashier, narrates â€Å"AP†. It happens to be summer in a somewhat conservative town when Sammy sees three young girls walk into his store wearing nothing but their bathing suits, and suddenly he is mesmerized by what he is seeing. While observing Sammy uses the word â€Å"sheep† to describe all the others in the store and how they all happen to follow some sort of routine and do what everyone else is doing. â€Å"The sheep pushing their carts down the aisle – the girls were walking against theShow MoreRelatedA P By John Updike982 Words   |  4 PagesThe story that this research paper is being written over is â€Å"AP† by John Updike. This story is filled with good grammar and has a well written plot and good transition. A person reading the story â€Å"AP† could see it as an interesting story filled with good symbolism. The main character, Sammy, uses a great deal of symbolism when describing the three girls in ba thing suits who walked into the store he works in. the three girls in bathing suits that walked into the store where the center of the wholeRead MoreA P By John Updike1190 Words   |  5 PagesA P is a story of Sammy who is a 19 year old boy working as a clerk at a grocery store in a small town in New England. Published back in 1961 narrative defining A P is the popular mythology of 1960s basically where youthful rebellion powers took over the soulless system. (Sustana) Therefore Updike has written a story that includes key elements of myth along with the background of postwar prosperity and the attendant consumer culture. Where there is a strong hint of the Cold War as hero characterRead MoreA P By John Updike1704 Words   |  7 PagesIn the story AP by John Updike a young cashier by the name of Sammy learns about the power of desire and the mystery of others minds when working at an AP supermarket in a small town north of Boston in the 1960’s, where there was a lot of social norms and many people didn’t step out of them. The young nineteen-year-old Sammy wasn’t expecting his Thursday shift at AP to go the way it did when income three young girls but, these are not your socially normal teenagers who come walking in the doorRead MoreA P By John Updike1160 Words   |  5 Pagesthe girls’ exit and regret fills him. What he thinks is noble and just becomes a changed, regretful soul. In â€Å"AP† by John Updike, the symbolism portrays the theme of the desire for change. The girls’ immodesty is a symbol of rebellion, revealing the theme of the desire for change. As Sammy acknowledges in the short story, the story takes place â€Å"north of Boston† (Updike 360). The estimated time period is the 1960s. At this time, most of the younger generation longed for change, whichRead MoreA P, By John Updike1019 Words   |  5 Pagespsychoanalytical lens can be used to analyze AP, a short story by John Updike, lone, a piece of art by John William Godward, and â€Å"To My Best Friend - Short Film†. Through this lens, readers can draw the theme that all humans have basic instincts and urges that lie in the unconscious mind. Throughout Updike’s AP, it stands clear that we are always being influenced by fundamental human desires. AP is told from the perspective of Sammy, a teenage cashier at AP. In the beginning of the story, three teenageRead MoreA P By John Updike843 Words   |  4 Pageshelp establish the uniqueness of his or her use of speech through the story’s title, structure, punctuation, setting and the communication between characters. In the story A P by John Updike, the author sets the story in a very ordinary place where everyday people go shopping for their groceries, in a market known as A P. Updike’s style within the story shows many aspects of ordinary life. For example, in the first sentence of the story, the narrator Sammy uses incorrectly the word walks, â€Å"InRead MoreA P By John Updike1441 Words   |  6 PagesJohn Updike is considered one of the greatest writers in modern American history. He is known for the idea that seemingly ordinary aspects of American life are actually quite fascinating. He wanted readers to see the beauty and magic of life, so he tried to describe everyday things using the most clear but beautiful language possible. Many of Updike’s pieces are drawn from his own life such as his marriage and his boyhood, as shown in three of his short stories: â€Å"AP†, â€Å"Ace in the Hole†, and â€Å"PigeonRead MoreA P By John Updike765 Words   |   4 PagesJohn Updike wrote, â€Å"A P† in 1961. In this era of the 1950s and early 1960s, conservative dress mirrored conservative social values. Conformity was the measure of popularity as well as a measure of moral rightness. During this time, people were more afraid of being labeled outsiders than they were afraid of the outsiders themselves (â€Å"A P†). Gender issues and the emergence of feminist consciousness are represented when Lengel states the rules that proclaim the girls are decently dressed-codingRead MoreAP by John Updike512 Words   |  2 Pages â€Å"AP† by John Updike is a story about a boy who learns that all actions have consequences. In â€Å"AP† three girls walk in to the store AP in nothing but their bathing suits. Sammy one of the stores cashiers describes what the girls are wearing and what they do throughout the story. The girls walk up and down the aisles catching the attention of many of the other customers. The girls then get in line at Sammy’s checkout, the manager Lengel walks up and tells the girls they will have to leave thisRead MoreA P By John Updike1033 Words   |  5 Pageshow we face these decisions will have an impact in our lives, and sometimes the ones that seem to be small are the most important ones. John Updike understood how making decision affects people’s life, and he develops it in his short story â€Å"A P,† which is the story of an unhappy boy who quits his job for a pretty girl. In order to develop this theme, John Updike takes Sammy, the main charac ter of the story, through three different stages. In the beginning stage, Sammy is just a boy who is not happy