Problems in the Further Implementation of Sage Philosophy :: Philosophical Africa Essays

Problems in the Further Implementation of Sage Philosophy ABSTRACT: With the recent death of Prof. H. Odera Oruka, founder of the ‘sage philosophy’ school of research based at the University of Nairobi, there is a need to look at some now-problematic issues. I suggest that the original impetus for starting the sage philosophy project-the defense against Euro-American skeptics who thought Africans incapable of philosophizing-has been outgrown. The present need for studies of African sages is to benefit from their wisdom, both in Africa and around the world. I also suggest that the title ‘sage’ has to be problematized. While there were good reasons to focus earlier on rural elders as overlooked wise philosophers, the emphasis now should be on admiring philosophical thought wherever it may be found—in women, youth, and urban Africans as well. In such a way, philosophy will be further relevant to people’s lives, and further light will be shed and shared regarding the lived experience in Africa. Odera Oruka’s Own Criticism of Sage Philosophy Despite his pride in launching what many consider an important project in African philosophy, the writings of Odera Oruka himself express some doubts about the project. For example, in his essay "Philosophy in East Africa and the Future of Philosophical Research in Africa," he seems to refer to his own project as one of passing historical significance. There, after criticizing Tempels and other ethnophilosophers, he admits that he himself "indulge(s) in some kind of anthropological-cum-philosophical research." He said projects like his own sage philosophy and Sumner's researches into historical texts of Ethiopian philosophy were necessary at that historical point, but would soon give way to nationalist-ideological and professional-technical philosophy, trends he saw as more central to the future of African philosophy. In "Sage Philosophy Revisited," he states that "sage philosophy started as a reaction to a position which Europeans had adopted about Africa that Africans are not capab le of philosophy." So, does this imply that once Europeans change their perceptions of Africans, there will no longer be a need for professional philosophers to search out the ideas of wise rural sages? Even in this late essay, Odera Oruka continues to suggest that his work merely serves as a "base" for other forms of philosophy which will emerge in the future, but which he can't imagine right now. By "base" he seems to mean a collection of texts to which professional academic philosophers can turn, instead of always consulting European ones [Odera Oruka (1996, Ch.

Religious beliefs Essay

In What Pragmatism Means, James writes that the central point of his own doctrine of truth is, in brief, that â€Å"truth is one species of good, and not, as is usually supposed, a category distinct from good, and coordinate with it. Truth is the name of whatever proves itself to be good in the way of belief, and good, too, for definite, assignable reasons. † Richard Rorty claims that James did not mean to give a theory of truth with this statement, and that we should not regard it as such; though other pragmatism scholars such as Susan Haak and Howard Mounce do not share an instrumentalist interpretation of James. Bruce Kuklick, (Kuklick, tells us that, â€Å"James went on to apply the pragmatic method to the epistemological problem of truth. He would seek the meaning of ‘true’ by examining how the idea functioned in our lives. A belief was true, he said, if in the long run it worked for all of us, and guided us expeditiously through our semi-hospitable world. James was anxious to uncover what true beliefs amounted to in human life, what their â€Å"Cash Value† was, what consequences they led to. A belief was not a mental entity which somehow mysteriously corresponded to an external reality if the belief were true. Beliefs were ways of acting with reference to a precarious environment, and to say they were true was to say they guided us satisfactorily in this environment. † In this sense the pragmatic theory of truth applied Darwinian ideas in philosophy; it made survival the test of intellectual as well as biological fitness. If what was true was what worked, we can scientifically investigate religion’s claim to truth in the same manner. The enduring quality of religious beliefs throughout recorded history and in all cultures gave indirect support for the view that such beliefs worked. James also argued directly that such beliefs were satisfying—they enabled us to lead fuller, richer lives and were more viable than their alternatives. Religious beliefs were expedient in human existence, just as scientific beliefs were. † William James gave a further direction to pragmatism, developing it as a theory of truth. True ideas, according to James, are useful â€Å"leadings†; they lead through experience in ways that provide consistency, orderliness, and predictability. John Dewey was another leading pragmatist whose influence on educational and social theory is still prevalent in American society. We learn from (American Pragmatism I), that â€Å"James elaborated his theory of pragmatism in works such as Pragmatism: A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking (1907) and The Meaning of Truth: A Sequel to Pragmatism (1909). He considered pragmatism to be both a method for analyzing philosophic problems and a theory of truth. He also saw it as an extension of the empiricist attitude in that it turned away from abstract theory and fixed or absolute principles and toward concrete facts, actions, and relative principles. James considered philosophies to be expressions of personal temperament and developed a correlation between â€Å"tough-minded† and â€Å"tender-minded† temperaments and empiricist and rationalist positions in philosophy. Theories, he felt, are â€Å"instruments† that humans use to solve problems and should be judged in terms of their â€Å"cash value† or practical consequences for human conduct. Reference American Pragmatism I. â€Å"Pragmatism†. Adventures in Philosophy. James, William. (1902-1920). â€Å"What is Pragmatism†. The Library of America. Lecture II Kuklick, Bruce. â€Å"William James†. The Introduction to William James’s Pragmatism. Wikipedia, The Free Dictionary.

Global Warming Affects International Business

During the 20th century, the earth's average surface temperature increased by 0. 6 °  ± (). 2 °C (Folland et al. 2001), and there’s strong evidence that human activities are the main cause of this trend (Mitchell et al. 2001). This increase in global surface temperature is thought to have at least some effect on the frequency of extreme weather events due to climate changes (Folland et al. 2001), and there is concern that these changes will have an enormous impact on various industries (Hitz and Smith 2004). Balancing environmental measures with economic development, that is, working toward sustainable development, is the fundamental goal of global environmental policies, including those for global warming (Hijioka, Masui, Takahashi, Matsuoka, and Harasawa 2006). Over the last decade, scientists have extensively studied the greenhouse effect, which holds that the accumulation of carbon dioxide (CO2) is expected to produce global warming and other significant climatic changes over the next century (Mendelsohn, Nordhaus and Shaw, 1994). In this essay, we will be discussing about the impact to an analysis of global warming change effects on agriculture and insurance industries, and some qualitative conclusions on the relative importance of the government decision. Numerous studies indicate major impacts on agriculture, especially if there is significant mid-continental drying and warming in the country (Mendelsohn et al. , 1994). Normally, sky-high food prices reflect scarcity caused by crop failure. Stocks are run down as everyone lives off last year's stores. This year harvests have been poor in some places, notably Australia, where the drought-hit wheat crop failed for the second year running. And world cereals stocks as a proportion of production are the lowest ever recorded. The run-down has been accentuated by the decision of large countries (America and China) to reduce stocks to save money (Peterson, 1979). With respect to research on global warming, United States and other international research programs are aiming towards improving future predictions. Such programs are arguably weakest in modelling feedbacks from human activities, including effects of trends towards greater urbanization and deforestation on local and regional climates. Economic incentives and culturally motivated practices are in large part driving changes in land use. Understanding incentives and responses by individuals, companies, and governments in developing countries will strengthen the human behavioural component of feedbacks to the climate system. U. S farm policy merits reform to increase farmers’ flexibility in responding to climatic changes without financial penalties that government programs may potentially give to such responses. Besides, government also introduce price support programs to inhibit climate change adaptation. Subsidies, tariffs and non-tariff barriers continue to distort world trade in agriculture and food. Subsidised prices reduce the ability of farmers in non-subsidising countries to earn a sustainable income and generate the capital required to increase production and improve productivity (Hill, Cronk and Wickramasekera, 2011). For example, today’s farmers are paid any positive difference between the support price for any program commodity and the international market price. International commodity markets smooth the price effects of production and consumption shocks, so changes in the patterns of food consumption induced by climate change thus are tempered by open trade or called free trade (Robert and Sally, 1995). Free trade occurs when there is an absence of barriers to the free flow of goods and services between countries Free trade might also increase the efficiency with which a country’s stock of resources of resources, as increased supplies of labour and capital from abroad become available for use within the country (Hill, Cronk and Wickramasekera, 2011). One manifestation insight is the joint implementation approach to greenhouse gas reductions initiated by several countries, including the U. S. Under joint implementation, the least costly projects to reduce greenhouse gas emissions or enhance carbon sinks can be pursued jointly across countries by, in essence, giving private agents and governments opportunities to meet emission reduction targets anywhere and in cooperation with ay others around the world. For example, forestry projects are one of the important outcomes of joint implementation in agriculture industry. Planting trees in reforestation or afforestation projects enhances the absorptive capacity of the biosphere and leads to carbon dioxide reductions in the atmosphere(Robert and Sally, 1995). Besides, Tesco, a European supermarket chain, is beginning a program to provide a global warming rating for everything it sells (Scot, 2007). The chain is creating an index to measure the â€Å"carbon footprint† required to produce, package, and transport ach product in its stores. Consumers can then include the carbon footprint along with price and product quality when making purchasing decisions. Weather and climate are ‘‘core business’’ for the insurance industry. Many extreme weather events such as cyclones, hailstorms, bushfires and floods are projected to increase in either intensity or frequency under climate change. A changing, less predictable climate has the potential to reduce the insurance industry’s capacity to calculate, price and spread this weather-related risk. In Australia, 19 out of the 20 most costly natural disasters, in terms of property insurance losses, have been weather related (Michael, 2007). While insurers face huge risks for society’s failure to act to curb greenhouse gas emissions, there are untapped opportunities for the insurance industry to use its financial muscle to push for changes in government policies as well as damaging business practices of the oil and fossil fuel power generating companies and the auto industry, to name the most obvious (Carrie, 2003). Analysis of the risks associated with climate change provides insurance companies with a working example of the benefits in considering long-term as well as short term issues. Understanding long-term risks and opportunities enables insurers to ensure our business is sustainable in the long term, while generating enduring shareholder value (Michael, 2007). Insurers and reinsurers using their considerable financial resources as â€Å"catalysts† for the development of renewable, emission reductions and energy efficient technologies could serve the industry by reducing risks and opening up new lines of business activity (Carrie, 2003). Government is committed to undertaking further research to increase the scientific understanding of the impacts of global warming, to identify ways to reduce the impact that global warming is expected to have on society and to identify insurance based, policies incentives for a reduction in future greenhouse gas emissions. However, success in dealing with this global problem requires action across the entire economy. While we are learning more about the economics and geophysics of global warming, policy makers should continue to seek ways to minimize social costs of climate change and change mitigation, a process which the economics profession has much to contribute. Prominent examples of efficiency-enhancing policy measures are he promotion of free trade, the liberalization of farm policy, and the joint implementation of greenhouse gas reduction objectives under the Framework Convention on Climate change (Robert and Sally, 1995). Climate change presents a strong case for the need for business, governments and community groups to work together to find sustainable solutions to this critical challenge of the 21st century (Michael, 2007).

Sometimes sadness

Sometimes sadness is feeling blue where someone just needs a caring friend or family member who can offer encouragement. Sometimes sadness is much more. Severe sadness can cause frequent crying spells, sleeping too much, or eating too much or too little. Women may resort to drugs or alcohol to make the pain lesson. What starts this kind or severe sadness? It can begin with a painful experience such as divorce, the death of a loved one, a lost relationship, or a troubled marriage. It can also begin with an event from childhood, such as, physical, emotional, or sexual abuse. Some women have Chemical Imbalances which cause them to be severely sad, and complicates them being able to solve everyday problems. Severe sadness is a type of illness called depression, and can be treated. Twenty-five percent of women are expected to experience depression at some point in their lives. Depression effects many women in today's society, and many of them do not understand what i! t is. Women also do not know how to identify the signs, or symptoms of depression. No one is immune from depression, and it affects everyone, from personal experience to depression in a family member. Depression is defined as the act of being sad, the state of being depressed, or low in spirits. Depression interferes with normal functioning, and can cause problems with work, family, and friends. Serious depression can destroy a family life as well as their own life. Melissa's life was going very well for her. She was recently married, and starting her new life. Melissa's life starting falling apart as she got news about her mother. Her mother had cancer, and wasn't going to make it. Soon her mother passed away, and she was left feeling abandoned, and alone. She felt as if a part of her was gone, and that she wouldn't be able to go on. Melissa and her mother were very close. They shared everything together, and were viewed as best friends. ...

Alienation and Capitalism

Alienation and Capitalism Introduction The idea of alienation was developed by Karl Marx and it can be used to analyze the nature of human interaction in the current world. Alienation is widespread today and it can barely be witnessed in almost all societies. â€Å"Marx developed his theory of alienation to reveal the human activity that lies behind the seemingly impersonal forces dominating society† (Meszaros 45). Marx contends that the modern world is a product of past human activities.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Alienation and Capitalism specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More He further explains that the future world will also be influenced by human activities. The materialist theory as put forward by Marx indicates that human beings were influenced by their societies. Marx believes that alienation is entrenched in materialism and not in religion or the psyche. However, Hegel and Feuerbach associated alienation with the former and no t the latter. Alienation in essence meant loss of the capacity to have power over labor. Human Nature â€Å"Marx criticized the notion that humans possess a fixed nature regardless of their society† (Marx 398). He clearly explained how the myriad factors associated with the unchanging human character, vary considerably in various societies. He contended that the necessity to influence nature to fulfill human requirements was the only systematic aspect of all human cultures. Just like animals, people should work in order to stay alive. Nonetheless, human labor was differentiated from animal labor since human beings developed perception. Ernest Fischer noted that human labor is unique since people consciously work on nature, and formulate new mechanisms of getting the items they require. Working on nature changes both the laborer and his environment. â€Å"Consequently, labor is a dynamic process through which the laborer shapes and moulds the world he lives in and stimulates himself to create and innovate† (Ollman 156). According to Marx, â€Å"the individual is the social being† (Ollman 157). In this context, Marx implies that as people struggle to obtain their daily needs, they are all compelled to interact with others. Society is not merely comprised of people; it conveys the totality of relationships and connections that people find themselves in. labor makes people to interact physically with the world. Development of humanity is partly determined by labor. Moreover, human relationships are a product of labor itself. â€Å"Our ability to work, to improve how we work and build on our successes, has tended to result in the cumulative development of the productive forces† (Macionis 456). This is what produced class society. Surplus production caused division of societies into classes. This process was significant in developing and controlling dynamics of production. However, it also meant that most producers could no longer have co ntrol of other people’s labor. As a result, labor alienation emerged with social order.Advertising Looking for essay on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More â€Å"The emergence of class divisions in which one class had control over the means of producing what society needed, led to a further division between individuals and the society to which they belonged† (Marx 345). Even though alienation is persistent in the world, it can still be altered. Alienation and Capitalism â€Å"Alienation arose from the low level of the productive forces, from human subordination to the land and from the domination of the feudal ruling class† (Macionis 134). Nonetheless, these types of alienation exhibited some restrictions. For instance, peasants labored independently on their land, and produced their necessities within their autonomous family systems. Capitalism had dynamics and constraints that were different from those of feudalism. The bourgeoisie envisaged a society where transactions could primarily be based on money. In this case, alienation is practiced through selling. In the capitalist society, many individuals were restrained from accessing the vital modes of production. As such, the majority of people were rendered landless. This compelled them to sell their labor in order to meet their daily necessities. Hence, labor was commoditized and it could be sold just like other items in the market. â€Å"Capitalism involved a fundamental change in the relations between men, instruments of production and the materials of production† (Marx 234). Production shifted from homes to factories. Division of labor came into sight with the onset of factory production, and it was really devastating. Workers became over dependent on the bourgeoisie, who dominated production. Forced labor also emerged because laborers had no influence in their jobs. Alienation was worsened by capi talism. In this case, workers were extremely alienated from the items they produced. â€Å"Marx argued that the alienation of the worker from what he produces is intensified because the products of labor actually begin to dominate the laborer† (Macionis 367). Part of a worker’s produce is embezzled by his employer. Therefore, the worker is continuously exploited. Workers also use their wages to purchase what they have produced themselves. The labor patterns today have been seriously fragmented by the current production models.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Alienation and Capitalism specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Conclusion From this discussion, it is evident that alienation has consistently developed from the ancient world to present. At present, alienation is manifested clearly by the kind of interaction that prevails between modern industrialists and their laborers. In this parasitic interaction, the capitalists have a tight grip on production channels. Conversely, workers are only left with the option of selling their skills. Therefore, Marx’s alienation concept is relevant in examining the existing production systems. Macionis, John. Sociology. New York: Pearson Prentice Hall, 1997. Marx, Karl. Theories of Surplus Value. New York: Humanity Books, 2000. Meszaros, Istvan. Marxs Theory of Alienation. New York: Merlin Press, 1986. Ollman, Bertell. Alienation: Marxs Conception of Man in a Capitalist Society. London: Cambridge University Press, 1977.

An exploration into irony, its meaning, and its consequences in Romeo and Juliet Essay

An exploration into irony, its meaning, and its consequences in Romeo and Juliet Essay Incongruity between what might be expected and what actually occurs; this is the definition of irony, but what really is it? The answer, though not told in this essay, is definitely well explained through examples from William Shakespeares The Tragedy of Romeo and Juliet. This play is filled with paradoxical happenings that ultimately lead to the death of the hero and heroine. Of them, we see circumstances dealing with verbal, dramatic, and situational irony. To help with describing the definition better, we shall go into each of these types of ironies in turn.First, lets take a look at verbal irony. Verbal irony is basically sarcasm, saying something that means something completely different. We see it in R and J at the beginning when Romeo first meets Juliet and talks philosophically about pilgrims and praying. We see it again when the nurse talks about Juliets age and marriage later on in the same act. It both places, the speaking characters have an underlying meaning to what they really are saying, they are superb examples of verbal irony. Next, we have dramatic irony. Dramatic irony is when the audience knows something the characters do not. This type of irony plays a crucial role in Romeo and Juliet because it is what, in the end, leads to the demise of our heroes. We mainly see this in the end of the play when we learn of Juliets faked death and Romeo has not. We also see it at the death of Tybalt who was completely unaware that he would set Romeo into a killing rage and lose his life to it. These both are cases of dramatic irony.Thirdly and probably most importantly, is situational irony. This is when the story takes a completely different turn than expected by the readers and the characters. I say this plays the most important role in the play because it is what brings us to the death of Romeo and Juliet through the friar. You see, we play into its trap when the friar gives Juliet the potion and we believe that everything is going to be fine. Only later do we find out that it is his failure to plan that kills the young lovers. In the end, it is situational irony that makes the story of Romeo and Juliet a tragedy. Through this essay, we have generally learned what irony is through examples in the text Romeo and Juliet. We have looked at what ironys three main types are and examples. There was verbal irony, such as at the beginning of the play. There was also dramatic irony such as Juliets fake death. Finally, the play went out with a bang by using situational irony.Hopefully, by going into these types of irony, irony itself is better understood.

Marketing plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 4

Marketing plan - Essay Example The collections include ancient vessels and artefacts. These vessels were mostly used in the period between 17th and 18th century. The pricing structure is such that individuals willing to subscribe as members pay $15 while household customers pay a fee of $20.The Museum is one of the leading museums in UK. Television, Magazine and radio advertisements are mostly used in promoting events. The strategy for implementing the market plan focuses on three main areas. These are product, promotion and pricing. The Museum intends to increase the quality of services it offers while at the same time employ a pricing technique that will attract more customers and the same be financially satisfying. Promotions and advertisements are crucial in any marketing plan and a strategic approach shall be used to ensure this is done correctly. Aberdeen Maritime Museum gives the story of Aberdeen city’s lengthy bond with the Sea (Lamb, 123). The award-winning museum is situated on the famous Shiprow and integrates Provost Rosss House. The Museum is home to a unique collection made up of fast sailing ships, port and fishing history. It is a unique site being the only place in Britain where one can see North Sea oil industry. A marketing plan is a document that helps managers in strategizing on how to improve the performance of that business in a given sector (Runyard, 105). A good marketing plan should be able to give solutions to performance issues relating to a business. A marketing plan contains various components that analyze the current scenario and design a strategy to improve the performance of a business (Burnett, 108). This marketing plan sets out a convincing and inclusive vision for Aberdeen Maritime Museum; a vision, which is firmly in line with mission of the biggest public art gallery in the north of Scotland. Aligned with Scotland’s national strategic and performance agendas, this plan and its